INSTITUTE FOR AGRICULTURE AND TRADE POLICY < FOOD AND HEALTH PROGRAM
2105 FIRST AVENUE SOUTH < MINNEAPOLIS MINNESOTA 55404 USA < (612) 870-0453 < IATP.ORG
Smart Plastics Guide
Healthier Food Uses of Plastics
Environmental problems: Most plastics are made
from petroleum, a non-renewable resource. Plastic packag-
ing also creates unnecessary waste. Plastic is bulky—taking
up a large volume of landfill space.
Health risks: The use of plastics in cooking and food
storage can carry health risks, especially when hormone-
disrupting chemicals from some plastics leach into foods and
beverages. Plastic manufacturing and incineration creates air
and water pollution, and exposes workers to toxic chemicals.
Choose less polluting products to reduce
your exposure to chemicals.
PVC—THE POISON PLASTIC: Polyvinyl chloride, also
known as vinyl or PVC, poses risks to the environment and
human health. PVC is the least recyclable plastic.
• Vinyl chloride workers face an elevated risk of liver cancer.1
• Vinyl chloride manufacturing creates air and water
pollution near the factories, often located in low-income
neighborhoods.
• PVC needs additives and stabilizers to make it useable.
Lead is often added for strength, while plasticizers are
added for flexibility. These toxic additives contribute to
further pollution and human exposure.
• Dioxin in air emissions from PVC manufacturing and
disposal, or from incineration of PVC products, settles on
grasslands and accumulates in meat and dairy products,
and ultimately, in human tissue.
• Dioxin is a known carcinogen. Low-level exposures are
associated with decreased birth weight, learning and
behavioral problems in children, suppressed immune
function and hormone disruption.2
What plastic labels mean: The recycling symbol is used pri-
marily on disposable plastic packaging and single use contain-
ers. Non-disposable food-use goods like dinnerware, pitchers,
flatware and baby bottles usually do not have a recycling label.
NOTE: Not all containers are labeled, and a recycling symbol
on a product doesn’t mean it’s recyclable. Commonly, only
plastic products labeled #1 and #2 with narrow necks are re-
cyclable, but some communities recycle other plastics. Check
with your local municipality or waste disposal company.
PETE: Polyethylene terephthalate ethylene, used for
soft drink, juice, water, detergent, cleaner and peanut
butter containers.
HDPE: High density polyethylene, used in opaque
plastic milk and water jugs, bleach, detergent and
shampoo bottles, and some plastic bags.
PVC or V: Polyvinyl chloride, used for cling wrap,
plastic squeeze bottles, cooking oil and peanut butter
containers, and detergent and window cleaner bottles.
LDPE: Low density polyethylene, used in grocery
store bags, most plastic wraps, Ziplock bags and
some bottles.
PP: Polypropylene, used in most Rubbermaid, deli
soup, syrup and yogurt containers, straws and other
clouded plastic containers, including baby bottles.
PS: Polystyrene, used in styrofoam food trays, egg car-
tons, disposable cups and bowls, carry-out containers
and opaque plastic cutlery.
Other: This is a catch-all category for plastics that
don’t fit into the #1-6 categories. It includes polycar-
bonate, bio-based plastics, co-polyester, acrylic,
polyamide and plastic mixtures like styrene-acrylo-
nitrile resin (SAN). Number 7 plastics are used for a
variety of products like baby bottles and “sippy” cups,
baby food jars, 5-gallon water bottles, “sport” water
bottles, plastic dinnerware and clear plastic cutlery.
Plastics are widely used to store and package food and beverages.
They are convenient, lightweight, unbreakable and relatively
inexpensive. However, there are both environmental and health
risks from the widespread use of plastics.
Published September 2008 < Copyright Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy
Health concerns with food use of plastics: A variety
of petroleum-based chemicals go into the manufacture of
plastics. Some can leach into food and drinks, and possibly
impact human health. Leaching increases when plastic comes
in contact with oily or fatty foods, during heating and from
old or scratched plastic. Use of some detergents can degrade
plastic, also allowing the chemicals to leach out. Types of
plastics shown to leach toxic chemicals are polycarbonate,
PVC and styrene. This does not imply that other plastics are
entirely safe; these plastics have just been studied more.
Bisphenol A (BPA), a chemical that mimics the action of
the human hormone estrogen, can leach from polycarbon-
ate plastic.3 A Centers for Disease Control study detected
BPA in the urine of 95 percent of adults sampled.4 Scientists
have measured BPA in the blood of pregnant women, in um-
bilical cord blood and in the placenta, all at levels shown to
cause harm in laboratory animals.5,6
While 92 percent of 163 government-funded studies found
significant developmental, reproductive or immune effects
from low-level exposure to BPA, none of the 13 industry-
funded studies found significant effects.7 Animal studies
document low dose effects at exposure levels hundreds of
times lower than the current level considered “safe” by
the Environmental Protection Agency.8
Hormones stimulate certain cancers. Bisphenol A stimulates
prostate cancer cells9 and causes breast tissue changes that
resemble early stages of breast cancer in both mice and hu-
mans.10,11 Early life exposure to BPA can also cause genetic
damage, including chromosomal errors at low levels of expo-
sure in mice, which can lead to spontaneous miscarriages and
birth defects.12 In humans, higher BPA levels in urine have
been associated with ovarian dysfunction.13 Another study
found that women with a history of recurrent miscarriages
had over threefold higher levels of BPA in their blood com-
pared to women without a miscarriage history.14
DEHA [Di(2-ethylhexyl)adipate] is one of several
plasticizers (softeners) to which people have daily exposure
through food, water, air and consumer products. PVC cling
wrap contains DEHA, a hormone-disrupting chemical
that can leach into oily foods on contact and when heated.
DEHA exposure is linked to adverse effects on the liver, kid-
ney, spleen, bone formation and body weight. It is also a pos-
sible human carcinogen, affecting the liver.15
Styrene can leach from polystyrene plastic. Styrene is tox-
ic to the brain and nervous system among workers with lon-
ger-term exposures,16,17 but also adversely affects red blood
cells, liver, kidneys and the stomach in animal studies.18 Aside
from exposure from food containers, children can be exposed
to styrene from secondhand cigarette smoke, off-gassing of
building materials, auto exhaust fumes and drinking water.
Fetuses and young children at greatest risk:
Young children’s immature immune sys-
tems, rapid development and different eat-
ing patterns make them more vulnerable
to toxic exposures. Child development is a
delicate biological process, guided by the
body’s own hormones acting at low levels
and affecting every cell, organ and function of the human
body. Exposures to chemicals like phthalates and bisphenol
A during critical times in development can disrupt the body’s
natural signals and cause effects that may not show up for
many years, possibly resulting in diseases such as prostate or
breast cancer later in life.
Confused about #7 plastic?
You’re not alone. Just a few years ago,
most #7 plastic was polycarbonate, a
plastic we should avoid. Now many new
plastics also fit into the #7 category. If
it’s labeled # 7-PC, it’s unsafe polycarbonate. (NOTE: not all
polycarbonate plastics have the PC label.) If it’s labeled “PLA”
or “compostable,” it’s a safer, bio-based plastic. Otherwise,
you will need to call the manufacturer and ask them what type
of plastic it is. Here are a few examples of non-polycarbonate
(non-BPA) #7 plastics:
• Gerber baby food containers are an overlay of polypropyl-
ene (inside) and polystyrene (outside).
• BornFree baby bottles are made of clear polyamide plastic.
• Polylactic acid (PLA) plastic is made from corn. Consumer
demand for a new label to identify bio-based plastics could
help distinguish them from polycarbonate and other #7
plastics.
• SAN or Styrene-acrylonitrile resin, a copolymer plastic
consisting of styrene and acrylonitrile.
• Nalgene and Camelbak brand water bottles are now made
of co-polyester.
• Acrylic plastic dinnerware.
By choosing safer plastics and limiting plastic
waste, you can support a healthier, cleaner
environment and protect yourself and your
family from unnecessary chemical exposures.
You can also support companies and public
policies that promote safer plastics.
Published September 2008 < Copyright Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy
10 tips for safer, more
sustainable food use of plastics
With your food, use 4, 5, 1 and 2.
3 and 6 are not good for you.
1. Avoid #7, labeled PC. PC or polycarbonate plastic can
leach harmful bisphenol A (BPA). Other #7 plastics like co-
polyester, polyamide, acrylic and polylactic acid (PLA) are
safer choices because they don’t contain BPA.
2. Avoid using plastic containers in the microwave.
Chemicals are released from plastic when heated. Instead,
use glass or ceramic containers, free of metallic paint. Note
that “microwave safe” does not mean that there is no leach-
ing of chemicals. Avoid using for fatty foods, because there
is greater leaching of chemicals into fatty foods.
3. Beware of cling wraps, especially for microwave use.
Instead use waxed paper, a paper towel or a plate for cover-
ing foods. For plastic wrapped deli foods, slice off a thin
layer where the food came in contact with the plastic and re-
wrap in non-PVC plastic wrap or place in a container.
4. Use alternatives to plastic packaging whenever
possible. Bring reusable bags or cardboard boxes to the
grocery store. Purchase products with less packaging.
5. Avoid plastic bottled water (unless you’re traveling or
live in an area where the quality of water is questionable).
Because it is less regulated, bottled water has less certain pu-
rity and safety than tap water, and is much more expensive.
If you’re worried about tap water quality, consider installing
a home water filter or use an inexpensive filter pitcher.
6. If you do use plastic water bottles, take precautions.
Using a refillable water bottle is a good idea, as it reduces
plastic waste, saves energy and non-renewable petrochemi-
cal resources, and also saves money. If you use a refillable
water bottle, avoid polycarbonate (labeled #7 PC) and
instead choose bottles made of stainless steel, glass or safer
plastics like co-polyester or polyethylene. If you choose to
use a polycarbonate water bottle, avoid use for hot liquids
and avoid placing in the dishwasher to reduce leaching of
BPA. Discard worn or scratched bottles. Water bottles from
#1 or 2 plastics are recommended for single use only. For all
types of plastic, you can reduce bacterial contamination by
thoroughly washing daily. However, avoid using harsh deter-
gents that can break down the plastic and increase chemical
leaching.
7. Use alternatives to polycarbonate plastic baby bottles
and “sippy” cups. Knowing what we do about BPA leach-
ing and the real risks to children’s health, it might be surpris-
ing to learn that many plastic baby bottles and “sippy” cups
are still made of polycarbonate. Fortunately, there are alter-
natives, including baby bottles made of glass, polyethylene,
polypropylene or polyamide, as well as “sippy” cups made
of stainless steel or safer plastics. For a complete list of safer
baby products, see Guide to Safer Children’s Products at
www.healthobservatory.org or www.healthylegacy.org
8. Avoid buying any products made of PVC (#3) includ-
ing building materials, toys and other consumer products.
9. Choose bio-based plastic, now available in a variety of
plastic products like cutlery, cups, water bottles and take-out
containers, for those occasions when it’s necessary to use dis-
posable plastic products.
10. Take action: Contact companies that make baby
bottles, “sippy” cups, baby food and plastic dinnerware, and
urge them to phase out polycarbonate, styrene and PVC
in their products. Contact your elected officials and urge
them to enact policies that protect public health from toxic
chemicals in consumer products, especially those designed
for children.
Safer choices for foods and beverages
Avoid
PC
Published September 2008 < Copyright Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy
More resources and links at
• iatp.org
• iatp.org/foodandhealth
• healthobservatory.org
• healthylegacy.org
For more information about
the Smart Plastics Guide,
contact:
Kathleen Schuler, MPH
kschuler@iatp.org
References:
1. U.S. EPA, Integrated Risk Information System. U.S. EPA. www.epa.gov/iris/
subst/1001.htm.
2. Institute of Medicine. Dioxins and Dioxin-like Compounds in the
Food Supply- Strategies to Decrease Exposure, National Academies Press,
Washington, DC. 2003
3. Howdeshell, KL, PH Peterman, BM Judy et al. “Bisphenol A is released
form used polycarbonate animal cages into water at room temperature.”
Environmental Health Perspectives 111(9): 1180-87. 2003.
4. Calafat, AM, Z Kuklenyik, J Reidy et al. “Urinary concentrations of bisphe-
nol A and 4-nonylphenol in a human reference population.” Environmental
Health Perspectives 113(4): 391-395. 2005.
5. Schonfelder, G, W Wittfoht, H Hopp et al. “Parent bisphenol A
accumulation in the maternal-fetal-placental unit.” Environmental Health
Perspectives 110(11): A703-A707. 2002.
6. Ikezuki, Y, O Tsutsumi, Y Takai et al. “Determination of bisphenol A concentra-
tions in human biological fluids reveals significant early prenatal
exposure.” Hum Reprod 17(11): 2839-2841. 2002.
7. University of Missouri Endocrine Disruptor Group. October 2006. F vom Saal.
http://endocrinedisruptors.missouri.edu/vomsaal/vomsaal.html .
8. vom Saal F, C Hughes. “An extensive new literature concerning low-dose effects of
bisphenol A shows the need for a new risk assessment.”
Environmental Health Perspectives 113(8): 926-933. 2005.
9. Wetherill, YB, C Petre, KR Monk et al. “The Xenoestrogen Bisphenol A Induces
Inappropriate Androgen Receptor Activation and Mitogenesis in Prostatic
Adenocarcinoma Cells.” Molecular Cancer Therapeutics 1: 515–524. 2002.
10. Markey, CM, EH Luque, M Munoz de Toro M et al. “In Utero Exposure to
Bisphenol A Alters the Development and Tissue Organization of the
Mouse Mammary Gland.” Biology of Reproduction 65: 1215–1223. 2001.
11. Munoz de Toro M, C Markey, PR Wadia et al. “Perinatal exposure to bisphenol
A alters peripubertal mammary gland development in mice.”
Endocrinology May 26, 2005. June 1, 2005. http://endo.endojournals.org/.
12. Hunt, PA, KE Koehler, M Susiarjo et al. “Bisphenol A exposure causes meiotic
aneuploidy in the female mouse.” Current Biology 13: 546-553. 2003.
13. Takeuchi T, O Tsutsumi, Y Ikezuki et al. “Positive relationship between androgen
and the endocrine disruptor, bisphenol A, in normal women and
women with ovarian dysfunction.” Endocrine Journal 51(2): 165-169. 2004.
14. Sugiura-Ogasawara M, Y Ozaki, SI Sonta et al. “Exposure to bisphenol A is
associated with recurrent miscarriage.” Hum Reprod. 20(8):
2325-2329. 2005.
15. U.S. EPA, Integrated Risk Information System. U.S. EPA. www.epa.gov/iris/
subst/0356.htm
16. Mutti A, A Mazzucchi, P Rustichelli et al. “Exposure-effect and exposure-
response relationships between occupational exposure to styrene and
neuropsychological functions.” Am. J. Ind. Med. 5: 275-286. 1984.
17. Benignus VA, AM Geller, WK Boyes et al. “Human neurobehavioral effects of
long-term exposure to styrene: a meta-analysis.” Environ Health Perspectives
113(5): 532-538. 2005.
18. U.S. EPA, Styrene Fact Sheet, Dec. 1994, available at http://www.epa.gov/
opptintr/chemfact/styre-sd.txt
19. Natureworks web site. Cargill-Dow. August 26, 2008. www.natureworksllc.com/
20. EarthShell web site. August 26, 2008. www.earthshell.com/
Green chemistry: Bio-based plastics
The emergence of the bio-based
plastic industry holds great potential
to eliminate many of the current
concerns about petroleum-based
plastic production, use and disposal.
Although bio-plastics are not yet
available for all plastics uses, they are now used in a
variety of food and beverage containers. For example
Natureworks manufactures Polylactic Acid, or PLA, a
corn-based plastic used in a variety of products from
containers to bottles to cutlery.19 EarthShell produces
foam laminate made from potatoes, corn, rice or tapioca,
which is used for food wraps, plates, bowls and take-out
containers.20 Certified compostable bio-based food ware
and packaging can be composted along with food and
yard waste in municipal composting facilities. Check with
your local facility on collection procedures and product
acceptability. For a list of certified products, see
http://www.bpiworld.org/
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